New Mexico's Jewish Pioneers Experiences Highlights from A History of the Jews in New Mexico, by Henry J. Tobias Tobias works from historical records in constructing a Jewish history of New Mexico, including the periods when New Mexico was under Spanish and Mexican rule, as a U.S. territory, and during early statehood. His study relies heavily on census data, family histories, and public documents. By reviewing 1880 census data, Tobias shows that Jews did participate in the general western migration of the period. By that point, Jews were living in all states except Oklahoma. California was second to New York in total Jewish population. Clearly, there were Jews living well beyond established eastern cities. Prior to the mid-19th century there is little in the historical record with which to build even a modest picture of a Jewish presence in New Mexico. Tobias concludes that most of the Jews at this point in time came to New Mexico as peddlers, selling their wares to farmers, or as adventurers on their way to the California Gold Rush or other mining bonanzas. Beginning around 1850, Jewish migration to the New Mexico Territory was entirely composed of German-Jewish immigrants and characterized by close familial relationships. Consistently, an older brother established a business and then sent for a younger brother or cousin. For example, Solomon Jacob Speigelberg arrived in New Mexico prior to 1848. His brothers, Levi and Elias, arrived in 1848 and 1850 respectively. Other examples of this pattern include the Beuthner brothers of Taos, Zeckendorfs of Albuquerque, Seligmans and Staabs of Sante Fe, and the Biernbaum brothers of Mora. These were young men. Solomon Jacob was 18 or 19 when he immigrated and his brothers, Levi and Elias, were 18 when they joined him. One may wonder why Jews settled in New Mexico around 1850. Tobias cites the 1850 census which lists all Jewish males as merchants or clerks. Although life in New Mexico must have been difficult at this time, clearly there must have existed a sufficient population density to make life as a peddlar or merchant possible. The Sante Fe Trail was a primary route west, and New Mexico's topography created many obstacles to expansion. Following the U.S. victory in the war of 1846-48, the presence of American troops created a need for a continuous flow of supplies and, therefore, new opportunities for merchants. In New Mexico, this opened the door to bring additional brothers or cousins to the Territory. By 1860, New Mexico's Jewish population had doubled to 34, with approximately two-thirds living in the Sante Fe area. How "Jewish" a life did these pioneers live? Tobias found one record showing that in 1856 there were four New Mexican subscriptions to a Philadelphia periodical devoted to Jewish life. A story published in the 1880's recounts New Mexico's first formal religious service, a 1860 Yom Kippur service held in Sante Fe. Those attending included the two Speigelberg families, Staab brothers, Dittenhoffers, Golds, Joseph Hersch, Louis Felsenthal, Aaron Zeckendorf, Herman Elsberg, Herman Ilfeld, and Philip Schwartzkopf. The significance of this service is that it was the first known public religious expression by the Jewish community. Jewish life in New Mexico clearly meant adapting to the local culture. The number of Jews was extremely small in proportion to the general population. Jewish pioneers in New Mexico needed to successfully interact with an established Hispanic population with its own traditions, the lawlessness of the frontier, and with a growing Anglo population with American laws and mores. Although 1860-1880 may be called the Golden Age for New Mexico's Jews, the Civil War period was a difficult time. Several merchants lost a considerable amount of merchandise at the hands of Texas forces under the command of General Henry H. Sibley. While the number of Jews in the Territory grew, it still represented an infinitesimally small percent of the total population. Census statistics showed that in 1860, Jews represented 0.05% (one-five hundredth of one percent) of the total New Mexico population, 0.1% (one-tenth of one percent) in 1870, and 0.2% (two-tenths of one percent) in 1880. A greater sense of a permanent Jewish community emerged in the 1870's as Jewish families were established. By 1880, one half of the males had married, and the brides were predominantly German-Jewish women, or Jewish women who were born in the United States. An interesting story appeared in the periodical The Israelite in 1872, reporting that a mohel named M. A. H. Fleischer of Denver traveled to New Mexico and "circumcised a large number of children at an advanced age." In 1876, Bar Mitzvah in New Mexico was held in Sante Fe. Tobias notes that this is a sign that the Jewish community felt the need to expand services to its younger members. It was no longer a community of single males. As more areas opened for settlement during the 1870's, the Jewish population joined the migration. Las Vegas, a town located on the eastern side of the mountains, grew to be the Territory's second largest population center. In 1870 there were 12 Jews in Las Vegas, By 1880, the number may have been as high as 70. It was also during this decade that Jewish firms expanded to multiple business locations. The 1880's ushered in a new era with the beginning of access to New Mexico by railroad. Prior to the railroad, travelers depended on the Sante Fe Trail. With the advent of train travel, the hazardous conditions imposed by New Mexico's terrain were greatly lessened. A story illustrating the extent to which Jews had been accepted into New Mexico's society involves the 1880 visit of President Rutherford B. Hayes to Sante Fe. Jewish businessmen played visible roles in the preparations and festivities. Zadock Staab served on a special committee and met the Hayes party, Jewish businesses were among those singled out to the President during a coach tour, and Staab even rode in the Hayes coach. The Speigelbergs rode in a second coach with Mrs. Hayes and Bernard Seligman was introduced to the presidential party. Perhaps the ultimate sign of acceptance was when President and Mrs. Hayes dined and slept in Lehman Speigelberg's home. Obviously, this recognition showed that Jews were accepted into the highest circles of Sante Fe society. Another landmark of New Mexican Jewish history came in 1883 when Lodge No. 336 of the Independent Order of B'nai B'rith (Sons of the Covenant) was formed in Albuquerque. By 1896, there were 72 members. Although this first organization was secular rather than religious, it afforded the framework for members to begin discussing the formation of a new congregation. In 1897, the Ilfelds, Grunsfelds, and Neustadts led other Jewish residents in forming Congregation Albert. They advertised for a rabbi and hired William H. Greenburg of London. Rabbi Greenburg held Congregation Albert's first service on March 18, 1898. Las Vegas formed its congregation, Congregation Montifiore, in 1884 and New Mexico's second B'nai B'rith chapter in 1902. By 1899, Albuquerque's Jews had laid the cornerstone to Temple Albert. Other changes to Jewish life came in the 1890's as Jews became active in political affairs. Solomon Speigelberg, Adolph Seligman, Abraham Staab, and Bernard Seligman were either elected or appointed to public office. Perhaps most interesting from the late-twentieth century perspective are the activities of Solomon Bibo, who became governor of the Acoma Pueblo Indians in 1884, learned the Keres language, and married Juana Valle, granddaughter of Martin Valle, a previous governor of the pueblo. Solomon and Juana Bibo are buried in the Temple Emanu-el Cemetery in Colma, California. The Acoma Pueblo tribal museum still has one of the Bibo Family menorahs. Over the first four decades of the twentieth century, the Jewish presence in New Mexico continued. In the early 1900's, the Jewish experience largely mirrored that of New Mexican society in general. During the 1920's New Mexico entered a period of decline that culminated in the Great Depression. The Jewish congregation in Las Vegas, Congregation Montefiore, lost its last known rabbi in the early 1930's. The 1940's showed a marked generational change. An increasing percent of the Jewish population was listed as "professional" rather than merchants or clerks. Jewish lawyers, accountants and pharmacists were establishing practices in the region. Tobias notes that there was still a basic difference between the eastern Jewish population that settled in large cities, and New Mexico's Jews. For eastern Jews, the vehicle for change was a powerful drive for upward mobility expressed through education. By contrast, New Mexico's Jews were in the middle class at the outset and remained so.